The Ancient Greeks at War

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Best, Jan G. P., Thracian Peltasts and their Influence on the Greek Warfare, Groningen: Wolters-Noordhoff, 1969. Campaigns were often timed with the agricultural season to impact the enemies or enemies' crops and harvest. The timing had to be very carefully arranged so that the invaders' enemy's harvest would be disrupted but the invaders' harvest would not be affected. Late invasions were also possible in the hopes that the sowing season would be affected but this at best would have minimal effects on the harvest. Brouwers, Josho, Henchmen of Ares: Warriors and Warfare in Early Greece, Rotterdam: Karwansaray Publishers, 2013. In 330 the Emperor Constantine the Great changed the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople. Greek population was part of the Empire and the Eastern part of the Roman Empire was already heavily Hellenized and Emperor Heraclius completed the Hellenization (replaced Latin with Greek as the official language, etc.) of the Byzantine Empire. Many states such as Athens, Argos, Thebes, and Syracuse began to maintain a small professional force ( logades or epilektoi) which could be augmented by the main citizen body if necessary. Armies became more cosmopolitan with the inclusion of resident foreigners, slaves, mercenaries, and neighbouring allies (either voluntary or through compulsion in the case of Sparta's perioikoi). Warfare moved away from one-off battles fought in a few hours to long-drawn-out conflicts which could last for years, the most important being the Persian Wars (first half of the 5th century BCE), the Peloponnesian Wars (459-446 & 431-404 BCE), and the Corinthian Wars (394-386 BCE). The Hoplite Phalanx

Rawlings, Louis (2007). The Ancient Greeks at War. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978 0 7190 56574. Kagan, Donald (1981). The Peace of Nicias and the Sicilian expedition. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. Syllabus Assessment Assessment Summative Raaflaub, Kurt and Rosenstein, Nathan. eds. (1999). War and Society in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. Hodkinson, Stephen, "Warfare, Wealth, and the Crisis of Spartiate Society," in John Rich and Graham Shipley, (eds.), War and Society in the Greek World, London: Routledge, 1993, pp.146–176.

Snodgrass, A., "The Hoplite Reform and History," Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 85, 1965, pp.110–122.

Cosmopoulos, M.B. ed. (2007). Experiencing War: Trauma and Society from Ancient Greece to the Iraq War. Chicago, Ill: Ares.

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Following the eventual defeat of the Athenians in 404 BC, and the disbandment of the Athenian-dominated Delian League, Ancient Greece fell under the hegemony of Sparta. The peace treaty which ended the Peloponnesian War left Sparta as the de facto ruler of Greece ( hegemon). Although the Spartans did not attempt to rule all of Greece directly, they prevented alliances of other Greek cities, and forced the city-states to accept governments deemed suitable by Sparta.